Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Homework - Essay Example (Lougheed 2005) This seems as if this could be the solution for many medical problems as scientist are able to somewhat repair damaged cells, and although this can save the lives of many, the lives lost through abortion will never make up for the ones saved. Until stem cells can be collected in a more ethical manner, they should not be used for medical advancement. Many supporters of stem cell research agree that the stem cells obtained from abortions would be destroyed anyway. Whether this is the case or not, the parents are choosing to allow the unborn fetus to die. This means that the cells also should die and it is not ethically correct to use them as they were chosen to be left dead. Hopefully this information is helpful and informative as to what types of stem cells should be used and why stem cell research can be unethical. Until another way is found to collect stem cells, I and many others will remain

The Personal Responsibility and Work Reconciliation Act Research Paper

The Personal Responsibility and Work Reconciliation Act - Research Paper Example This essay discusses that the current gender gap is not because women are less skilled than men but because now women demonstrate a higher propensity to attend college than men. Inequality in pay is due to the high extent of women’s segregation because of the nature of jobs. Hence, it can be said that women are now increasingly involved in competing with men in the job market. It is now required to eliminate the gender pay disparity because if single working mothers start earning as much as men there will be an increase of about 18 percent in the family income and the poverty will be reduced considerably. Major reforms relative to PRWORA have been in welfare fields such as housing, health care, child care and food. The federal government has allocated larger budgets for child care programs, which is evident from the fact that federal funding for child care has increased by almost 100 percent since the PRWORA was implemented. But some problems remain such as only about 12 perce nt of eligible households receive financial help under provisions of the Child Care and Development Fund. All families are not able to get benefits of state and federal schemes relative to child care, while tax exemptions continue to be meager in assisting families to adequately meet childcare costs. Additionally, the quality of child care is still poor because child care workers continue to be paid less. Even though there has been enhanced funding by the federal government in regard to child care, the pay of childcare workers has been stagnating.... Consequently, the outcomes of the PRWORA have been disputed and political campaigners have claimed either total success or failure depending upon their affiliations. At the same time, some facts cannot be denied such as the drop in volumes by about fifty percent in welfare relative to AFDC and TANF in spite of the several provisions that extended benefits external to the given rules. According to Boushey (2011), it is now evident that most of the former welfare recipients do not have work and those that are working earn between $6 and $8 per hour, which is too meager to sustain a family. The extent of poverty has increased amongst working families despite the decline in over all poverty rates. Families headed by single working mothers are the worst effected in this regard. Moreover, poverty has become more severe during the last many years for families that were already in deep poverty. Many families that were receiving welfare prior to the implementation of PRWORA are likely to expe rience greater hardships after they leave welfare. Over 33 percent of families getting welfare experienced situations when they were unable to get adequate food and the required medical care as compared to the position prior to the introduction of PRWORA. Families having one full time worker stood just a little less chance of experiencing one or more of such difficulties in comparison with the present welfare families. Almost 25 percent of families that became ineligible for welfare and had a single earning member went without adequate food, housing and the essential medical facilities. Most of the objectives of PRWORA pertained to addressing the high rate of single parenthood amongst poor households. It

Exogenous IL-10 and Golimumab for Heart Failure Treatment

Exogenous IL-10 and Golimumab for Heart Failure Treatment Synergistic Effect of Exogenous IL-10 and Golimumab in the Treatment for Heart Failure in Rats Running title: Heart Failure Treatment Highlights: The level of TNF-ÃŽ ± decreased after treatment with IL-10 and golimumab. The level of IL-10 was increased by IL-10 combined with golimumab. IL-10 and golimumab have a synergistic effect on HF in rats. ABSTRACT Objectives We attempted to assess the therapeutic effect of exogenous interleukin-10 (IL-10) in combination with golimumab in treating heart failure (HF) in rats, and provide an experimental basis for clinical application. Methods HF animal model was induced in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats by intraperitoneally injection with adriamycin, and rats in control group were treated with 0.9% normal saline. The HF rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: group A (HF group, n = 10), group B (IL-10 group, n = 10), group C (golimumab group, n = 10), and group D (IL-10 and golimumab group, n = 10). The normal rats were defined as controls in group E (n=10). Three months later, myocardial functional indexes and hemodynamic indexes of rats in all groups were measured. The levels of TNF-ÃŽ ± and IL-10 in serum were detected by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results The HF rat model was successfully constructed. After the treatment, compared with group A, the hemodynamic indexes in groups B-D were distinctly different (P P P P Conclusions IL-10 and golimumab has synergistic effect in the treatment of HF in rats, suggesting a potential clinical application of IL-10 combined with golimumab. Key words: cytokines; golimumab; heart failure; IL-10; TNF-ÃŽ ± INTRODUCTION Heart failure (HF) is considered to be a condition in which the heart can hardly pump sufficient blood to meet the need of the body [1]. It was demonstrated that HF is closely related to several diseases such as hypertension, ischemic heart disease, diabetes, obesity and dyslipidaemia [2]. HF has already been a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide [3, 4]. It was reported that more than23 million people in the world are suffering from HF [1]. Mortality caused by HF is up to 30%-40% within one year, and rise to a rate of 50%-75% within 5 years [5, 6]. So, HF has been a health concern all over the world. Previous studies suggested that the imbalance of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokines played a key role in the progression of HF [7]. Recent studies have highlighted the effects of some cytokines on immune-mediated myocyte injury, postischemic myocardial inflammation, and heart function. Levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) are reduced in HF development [8-11]. Evidences demonstrated IL-10 controlled inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine synthesis and inducted antiapoptotic processes [12]. IL-10 can promote healing of ventricular damage to avoid ventricular remodeling [13, 14]. IL-10 can enhance humoral immunity by inhibiting cell-mediated immunity to resist HF. Thus, IL-10 is considered to be a candidate for the management of HF, [12]. Serum level of pro-inflammatory cytokines of tumor necrosis factor ÃŽ ± (TNF-ÃŽ ±) are found to be elevated in experimental models of HF [15]. Studies declared that an increase of TNF-ÃŽ ± con centration resulted in necrosis and apoptosis of myocardial cells, finally led to ventricular remodeling by the progressive thinning and expansion of ventricular wall [16]. TNF-ÃŽ ± was reported to lower the myocardial systolic function directly [13, 14]. Furthermore, evidences uncovered the relationship of TNF-ÃŽ ± and progression of HF: elevated level of TNF-ÃŽ ± contributed to the development and progression of HF by activation of matrix metalloproteinases, and promotion of myocardial hypertrophy and contractile dysfunction [12]. Therefore, the TNF-ÃŽ ± inhibitors, as medicines for HF treatment, had been becoming the current hot topics in HF studies. Nowadays, etanercept, a recombinational TNF-ÃŽ ± inhibitor, had been synthesized already, which inhibit the pro-inflammatory of TNF-ÃŽ ± due to the interdicted effect for the conjugation of TNF-ÃŽ ± and cell membrane receptor [17]. Golimumab, another TNF-ÃŽ ± inhibitor, is a monoclonal antibody specific for human TNF-ÃŽ ± [18]. It can inhibit the bioactivity of TNF-ÃŽ ± via binding to TNF-ÃŽ ± with high affinity and specificity to prevent TNF-ÃŽ ± from combination with TNF receptor [19]. In addition, IL-10 has been shown to play a pivotal role in the mucosal immune system by inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine synthesis such as TNF-ÃŽ ± [20, 21]. However, there are few studies reporting the effect of exogenous IL-10 combined with golimumab forthe HF treatment. In the present study, we used HF rats model, which was induced by intraperitoneal injection with adriamycin (ADR), to explore the effect of exogenous IL-10 combined with golimumab in the treatment for HF. To analyze the therapeutic effects, IL-10 or/and golimumab were intraperitoneally injected into the HF rats and the effects of the treatments were tested by measuring heart functional indexes and level of inflammatory cytokines. In addition, the possible mechanisms of this effect were investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats model of heart failure Fifty 10-week-old Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, including 25 females and 25 males, were provided by Laboratory animal center, southern medical university Southern Medical University. Forty rats, with 20 females and 20 males, were chosen at random. Rats with HF were induced by intraperitoneal injection with 4 mg/kg adriamycin (ADR) once a week for 6 times. Control rats were given the same volume of normal saline. Experimental design and drug administration After 6 weeks, the model rats were randomly divided into 4 experimental groups: HF group (group A, n=10), IL-10 group (group B, n=10), golimumab group (group C, n=10), and IL-10 and golimumab group (group D, n=10), with 5 females and 5 males in each group. The normal rats were considered as controls in group E (n=10). Rats in group B was given an intraperitoneally injection of 50 pg/kg IL-10 each week. Exactly, 1 mg/kg golimumab (Centocor Ortho Biotech Inc) was administered intraperitoneally into the rats in group C each month. Rats in group D was intraperitoneally injected with 50 pg/kg IL-10 each week and 1 mg/kg golimumab each month. At the same time, rats in groups A and E received an intraperitoneal injection of 1ml normal saline. Rats in each group were treated for 3 times in total. During the test period, rats were fed on food and clean water freely. Echocardiography Three months after administration, echocardiographic indicators were obtained using a color doppler ultrasonic cardiograph (Vingmed CFM-725). Rats were anaesthetized with 5 ml/kg urethane solution at a concentration of 20% by intraperitoneal injection, and left ventricular long-axis and M-mode curve at the level of the left papillary muscles were measured. Finally, the left ventricle end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), the left ventricle end-systolic diameter (LVESD), left ventricular posterior wall depth (LVPWD) were measured, and the left ventricle fractional shortening (LVFS) can be calculated by the factors above, the formula is as follows: à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬LVFS = [( LVEDDà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‚ LVESD)/LVEDD]Ãâ€"100%. Measurements of haemodynamic parameters After anaesthetization, rats were fixed followed bytracheal intubationwith artificial ventilation. Super-miniature cardiac catheter was connected to multipurposepolygraph (Nikon 4) through the right common carotid artery and ascending aorta. Systolic pressure (ASP), diastolic pressure (ADP) and heart rate (HR) was recorded. As a follow-up, the cardiac catheter were inserted into the left ventricle, the left ventricle systolic pressure (LVSP), the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) and the maximum rate of the left ventricular pressure rise (+dp/dtmax) and decline (-dp/dtmax) were measured. Then, allratsweresacrificed to weight the body. Their hearts were weighted after washing by cold normal saline and drying by filter paper. Finally, Heart weight/Body weight (HW/BW, mg/g) was calculated based on HW and BW. Determination of the level of TNF-ÃŽ ± and IL-10 in serum After hemodynamic evaluation, 2 ml blood samples were drawn from the catheter positioned in the left common carotid artery, and collected into a 2 ml tube. After 30 min, the blood samples were centrifuged at 3000 r/min for 10 min. The supernatant were collected into Eppendorf (EP) tube. The concentration of TNF-ÃŽ ± and IL-10 in serum were detected by using an ELISA kit (RayBiotech. Inc), and experimental procedures were conducted according to themanufacturer’sinstructions stringently. Statistical analysis The data were represented as mean  ± standard deviation (SD). Comparisons between groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA and q-test (Student-Newman-Kueulsmethod). All statistical analyses were performed by using SPSS 12.0 software (SPSS, Chicago, IL). P RESULTS Heart function When the model establishment was completed, all of the rats suffered from HF, showing symptoms including dyspnea, edema, feed difficulty and oliguria. HF symptoms of the rats in groups B-D were alleviated after the treatment with IL-10, golimumab, and IL-10 and golimumab respectively. Obviously, symptoms of the rats in group D were most significantly alleviated. There was no rat died during the experimentation. Changes of BW, HW and HW/BW in the rats after treatment As shown in table 1, the BW and HW of the rats in groups A-D decreased significantly in contrast to those in group E (P P significantly when compared with group A (P > 0.05). The BW and HW of the rats in group D were markedly increased compared with group A (422.85 ±34.45 mg vs. 315.45 ±20.56 mg; 1355.29 ±112.23 mg vs. 1154.58 ±135.48 mg, P P The results of echocardiography Table 2 presents the results of echocardiography in the rats. Compared with E group, LVEDD and LVESD of the rats in groups A-D increased significantly (P P P (50.47 ±6.48 %) in group D was higher than group A (30.37 ±4.35 %, P P > 0.05). The hemodynamic indexes changes Hemodynamic parameters of the rats in group A had a difference in statistical significance when compared with group E (table 3). After treated with IL-10 and golimumab, ASP and ADP in group D was significantly increased when compared with group A (155.89 ±23.45 mmHg vs. 108.35 ±35.58 mmHg; 114.26 ±13.65 mmHg vs. 114.26 ±13.65 mmHg, P most markedly increased compared with group A (125.58 ±28.87 mmHg vs. 85.25 ±15.34 mmHg, P groups B and C. LVEDP in group D (5.23 ±0.68 mmHg) was most significantly decreased contrasted with group A (12.45 ±1.21 mmHg, P P Level of serum TNF-ÃŽ ± and IL-10 Compared with group E, the level of serum TNF-ÃŽ ± in groups A-D rose obviously (P P most significantly increased in group D when compared with group A (643.66 ±78.43 pg/ml vs 275.58 ±56.62 pg/ml, P DISCUSSION Heart failure (HF), as a complex clinical syndrome, is the ultimate end-result of various cardiovascular diseases and the main cause of death [7]. HF prevention and treatment have drawn more and more attention inthemedicalfield. It has been reported that TNF-ÃŽ ± played a central role in the progression of HF [12]. Studies indicated that golimumab, as a monoclonal antibody, had effective on inflammation based on inhibition on pro-inflammatory cytokine of TNF-ÃŽ ± [18, 19], moreover, the effect of TNF-ÃŽ ± in many tissue es is modulated by IL-10 [22]. In the present study, we used HF rats model to determine the effect of exogenous IL-10 combined with golimumab in the treatment for HF. The therapeutic effect of IL-10 combined with golimumab for HF in rats was evaluated according to heart function (changes of heart weight, echocardiographic and hemodynamic indicators) and the variation in the level of serum IL-10 and TNF-ÃŽ ±. To the best our knowledge, heart hypertrophy ultimately leads to HF [23], and the increase of HW/BW represents a tendency of heart hypertrophy [7]. In the present study, no obvious changes of HW/BW were observed in groups B (IL-10 group) and C (golimumab group) compared with group A (HF group). But HW/BW in group D (IL-10 and golimumab group) was markedly decreased obviously when compared with group A (HF group). These results indicate that treatment with either IL-10 or golimumab is less effective than the combination of IL-10 and golimumab for relieving heart hypertrophy. Studies indicated that treatment targeted the pathological disease such as heart hypertrophy was effective for HF [24].Therefore, our results suggest IL-10 combined with golimumab may have significant effects on prevention of HF. In addition, previous studies suggested that elevated LVEDD and LVESD and declined LVFS led to ventricular remodeling and culminated in progressive HF [25]. Based on the echocardiographic data in the present study, we found that LVEDD and LVESD decreased markedly, and LVFS increased in groups B-D compared with group A. Particularly, the most remarkable variation was observed in group D. these results suggest that IL-10 combined with golimumab are more effective inthe treatment of HF by relieving ventricular remodeling. Moreover, changes of hemodynamic parameters are regarded as an important signal of myocardial function which results in HF development [26]. In the present study, the hemodynamic measurements were improved in group D compared with groups A by increasing ASP, ADP, LVSP, LVEDP, and  ±dp/dtmax and decreasing LVEDP. Our observations were consistent with the previous findings showing that LVSP, LVEDP, and  ±dp/dtmax were increaded and LVEDP was decreased after completing the study of the HF rats. Furthermore, the previous studies declared that the deterioration of myocardial function in HF rats was more significantly alleviated based on the improvement of hemodynamic measurements after treatment [26, 27]. Notably, in our study, hemodynamic parameters in group D were improved compared with groups B and C. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that IL-10 and golimumab may have synergistic effects on improvement of myocardial function to relieve HF symptoms. Furthermore, in the present study, the level of IL-10 and TNF-ÃŽ ± were detected. The level of serum IL-10 was elevated in groups B-D compared to group A. Similarly, studies observed that an increase in IL-10 content was showed after effective treatment and suggested that improvement in cardiac function was connected with the elevated level of IL-10 [28-30]. Moreover, level of serum IL-10 in group D was higher than groups B and C, this suggest that the combination of IL-10 and golimumab can most significantly induce the elevation in the level of serum IL-10. Meantime, the results of our study showed that the level of serum TNF-ÃŽ ± in the rats of HF was significantly declined in group D compared with group A, while we noted that the treatment with IL-10 or golimumab only affected little the concentration of serum TNF-ÃŽ ± in groups B and C. This led us to hypothesize that golimumab is less effective in inhibition of the expression of TNF-ÃŽ ±, but more effective when combined with IL -10. As previous studies declared, TNF-ÃŽ ± plays a central role in initiating and sustaining the inflammatory response [31] and is a mediator of cardiac pathology acting through inflammatory pathways and activation of myocardial apoptosis [32, 33]. On the other hand, IL-10 inhibits cytokine-induced oxidative stress along with affecting the expression of inflammatory cytokines [34]. It is suggested that the imbalance between the IL-10 and TNF-ÃŽ ± in the heart may result in an inflammatory response, which plays a pathogenic role in the development and progression of HF [12]. The changes of the serum level of IL-10 and TNF-ÃŽ ± in our study suggest that IL-10 and golimumab may modulate the inflammatory processes by promoting the expressing of IL-10 and suppressing the expression of TNF-ÃŽ ±. Therefore, The combination of IL-10 and golimumab may be more effective than IL-10 or golimumab in the treatment of HF via inflammatory pathways. In conclusion, exogenous IL-10 and golimumab had synergistic effects on HF in rats based on the improvement in myocardial function and prevention of heart hypertrophy and ventricular remodeling through inflammatory pathways. Furthermore, the synergistic effect of IL-10 and golimumab is superior to the effect of treatment with IL-10 or golimumab only. Our results suggest that the combination of IL-10 with golimumab may be a promising treatment for HF patients. Further study is warranted to verify the efficiency of IL-10 combined with golimumab in human clinical trials.

Gulf War :: essays research papers

St. Augustine's Just War Theory and the Persion Gulf War On August 2nd, 1990 the first Iraqi tanks crossed into Kuwait, as part of an invasion that marked the start of a six-month conflict between the United States and Iraq. These tanks were ordered to invade Kuwait by Saddam Hussein, the ruthless dictator of Iraq. The Iraqi troops looted Kuwaiti businesses and brutalized Kuwaiti civilians. Saudi Arabia began to fear that they may be invaded as well, and on August 7th they formally asked President Bush for US assistance. The US pledged to defend the Saudis, and to remove the Iraqis from Kuwait. Great masses of troops from many different nations were deployed in the Persian Gulf area. At 4:30 PM EST on January 16, 1991, the first aircraft with orders to attack Iraqi targets were launched from Saudi Arabia, marking the beginning of Operation Desert Storm. Dictators like Mr. Hussein cannot be allowed to take advantage of smaller countries like bullies after lunch money. There has to be someone to stop them, or they will gain more and more power and land, just as Adolf Hitler tried to do in World War II. That someone, in the case of Mr. Hussein, was the United States, along with a multinational coalition. The US had just cause in entering a war against Iraq because of Iraq's invasion of the small and defenseless nation of Kuwait. Actions such as that must be repulsed. Iraq had no just cause in invading Kuwait; their reasons were either obscure or for their benefit. The US had to help Kuwait regain their nation. In protecting the Saudis from invasion and removing the Iraqis from Kuwait the US had the right intention. The real reason the US decided to fight the Iraqis was to restore Kuwait's government and to defend Saudi Arabia. There was no underlying reason, such as to receive better prices on oil or to make the Kuwaitis indebted to the US so as to receive favors. Throughout the war, the US made clear their purpose and intent in fighting the Iraqis, and not once did they stray from it. Legitimate authority was established when the Congress voted to follow United Nations resolution 678, section two of which "Authorizes Member States co-operating with the Government of Kuwait, unless Iraq on or before 15 January 1991 fully implements, as set forth in paragraph 1 above, the foregoing resolutions, to use all necessary means to uphold and implement resolution 660 (1990) and all subsequent relevant resolutions and to restore international peace and security in the area." The vote to follow the resolution was as good as a declaration of war, as far as legitimate authority is Gulf War :: essays research papers St. Augustine's Just War Theory and the Persion Gulf War On August 2nd, 1990 the first Iraqi tanks crossed into Kuwait, as part of an invasion that marked the start of a six-month conflict between the United States and Iraq. These tanks were ordered to invade Kuwait by Saddam Hussein, the ruthless dictator of Iraq. The Iraqi troops looted Kuwaiti businesses and brutalized Kuwaiti civilians. Saudi Arabia began to fear that they may be invaded as well, and on August 7th they formally asked President Bush for US assistance. The US pledged to defend the Saudis, and to remove the Iraqis from Kuwait. Great masses of troops from many different nations were deployed in the Persian Gulf area. At 4:30 PM EST on January 16, 1991, the first aircraft with orders to attack Iraqi targets were launched from Saudi Arabia, marking the beginning of Operation Desert Storm. Dictators like Mr. Hussein cannot be allowed to take advantage of smaller countries like bullies after lunch money. There has to be someone to stop them, or they will gain more and more power and land, just as Adolf Hitler tried to do in World War II. That someone, in the case of Mr. Hussein, was the United States, along with a multinational coalition. The US had just cause in entering a war against Iraq because of Iraq's invasion of the small and defenseless nation of Kuwait. Actions such as that must be repulsed. Iraq had no just cause in invading Kuwait; their reasons were either obscure or for their benefit. The US had to help Kuwait regain their nation. In protecting the Saudis from invasion and removing the Iraqis from Kuwait the US had the right intention. The real reason the US decided to fight the Iraqis was to restore Kuwait's government and to defend Saudi Arabia. There was no underlying reason, such as to receive better prices on oil or to make the Kuwaitis indebted to the US so as to receive favors. Throughout the war, the US made clear their purpose and intent in fighting the Iraqis, and not once did they stray from it. Legitimate authority was established when the Congress voted to follow United Nations resolution 678, section two of which "Authorizes Member States co-operating with the Government of Kuwait, unless Iraq on or before 15 January 1991 fully implements, as set forth in paragraph 1 above, the foregoing resolutions, to use all necessary means to uphold and implement resolution 660 (1990) and all subsequent relevant resolutions and to restore international peace and security in the area." The vote to follow the resolution was as good as a declaration of war, as far as legitimate authority is

Cultural baggage and Cultural tourism by Dr Jim Butcher, an evaluation Essay

Dr Jim Butcher, the author of the article above, has researched on its various facets of tourism such as its moralization, innovations, and cultural, ethical, ecological and anthropological aspects and also as a tool for sustainable development. He has several publications to his credit (www. canterbury. ac. uk). The article under review authored by Dr Butcher appears as a book chapter in the Book â€Å"Innovations in Cultural Tourism†(2001) edited by him. Key issues of the article are the positive and potential aspects of cultural tourism which some critiques discount it as antidevelopment and prone to cause conflicts between the host and the tourist. The author is of the view that cultural tourism has its roots to the man’s craving for alien cultures and the need for relief from monotony of modernity and as such it has naturally come as a blessing to the economically backward regions. He has found three aspects of culture as a function, as a past and as a difference overshadowing the goodness of cultural tourism. The main aim of the author is to dispel the negative impression created by these aspects in the minds of the critics. The book chapter under evaluation is not in layman’s language. Even a discernible student of tourism would find it difficult to distinguish between cultural baggage and cultural tourism or relationship between the two terms. Whatever Dr Butcher says about cultural tourism has been in one aspect or another touched upon by his peers. That the cultural tourism has come of age and is capable of benefiting the economically weaker nations or places within nations and that it promotes cultural exchanges, fusion of culture, that it simply promotes or creates awareness of host’s culture and that it has been gradually making countries sans boundaries with only natural barriers by creating a feeling of oneness, have all been also discussed by other authors on the subject if one happens to visit the website of the UNESCO on cultural tourism. (unesco. org) and many others. His unique findings are that the ‘over functional culture’, its ‘past’ character and its â€Å" difference† outlook overshadow the real creative character of cultural tourism. He has taken pains to explain all the three in almost four pages out of hardly six, which is an indicator of his serious concern towards Cultural Tourism. His conclusion that cultural tourism results in economic development is indeed true. Man is basically gregarious and therefore cultural tourism with its benefits is unstoppable. The cultural tourists and the hosts are the actors and we are the audience. It means differently to each one of them. If the actors are allowed to have their own way, the inevitable result will be what the author Dr Jim concludes with, that is development. There is no doubt cultural tourism is growing segment of the travel market â€Å"Mass marketing is giving way to one-to-one marketing with travel being tailored to the interests of the individual consumer. A growing number of visitors are becoming special interest travellers who rank the arts, heritage and/or other cultural activities as one of the top five reasons for travelling†(nasaa-arts. org). It has been said that mass tourism has had its detrimental effects but there are advocates for mass tourism for its own benefits. Certain undesirable conflicts of cultures are just harmless side effects and are not to be taken seriously for the sake of larger benefits cultural tourism. On the whole Dr Jim’s contribution in this chapter leaves the reader more informed and makes him act responsibly as an audience whether as a policy maker or whoever, in order to preserve and promote the goodness of cultural tourism markedly different from mass tourism. REFERENCES Butcher, J. (ed) (2001), Innovations in Cultural Tourism, ATLAS, Tilburg http://www. canterbury. ac. uk/business-sciences/sport-science-tourism-and-leisure/staff/dr-jim-butcher. asp accessed on July 12, 2006 http://www. nasaa-arts. org accessed on July 13, 2006 http://portal. unesco. org/culture/en/ev. php-accessed on July 13, 2006

Rome s Solutions - Transportation - 1422 Words

Rome’s Solutions – Transportation There is a plan that was talked about to help with the transportation problem. The main goal from this plan is to â€Å"reconnect the city, reduce the user of private vehicles which includes motorcycles, recover and redistribute public spaces, and improve the environment† (Nussio 3). What there are going to do for the inner city is toâ€Å"1.make environmental islands which is to help reduce through traffic. 2. Have parking regulations for public vehicles and goods vehicles. 3. Have vehicle sharing systems (cars, vans, bicycles). 4. Introduce electric and hybrid vehicles over time. 5. Make pedestrian areas and pathways† (Nussio 6). They are going to make a â€Å"rail ring size which is; a low emission zone that could become subject to payment according to vehicle emission class. Reorganize that public transportation so it will be more integrated with Metro, Tram, and Railway nodes. Make urban transport more sustainable an d reduce the transport emission in the city† (Nussio 7). The next part is to expand the rapid transport system by going underground and build a new tramway system. Complete roadways that are under construction, managing parking, and make the park and ride better. There is going to have to options for car-sharing: fixed or free-flow. â€Å"Fixed car sharing will be in 4 central districts, it will have an annual fee, the cars are in fixed places that you have to return the car to when you are done with it, and low hourly costs. It will beShow MoreRelatedRise Of The Roman And Persian Empire Essay1582 Words   |  7 Pagescivilization not only defends themselves but how they develop agriculturally and socially. 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History Labour Managers

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5569 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Lectures 3 In the modern period of human history, the division of labour in all but the smallest organisations has come to include the specialist role of a manager. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "History Labour Managers | Management Dissertations" essay for you Create order These people are required to step back from and stand above the basic operations and tasks of the organisation and in the famous words of Henri Fayol, forecast, plan, organise, command, co-ordinate and control. Henri Fayol and Frederick Taylor who coined the term scientific management, pushed the notion that there should be a body of specialist knowledge and expertise which managers would apply to work organisation. This notion gives us what Tony Watson 2006 characterises as a systems control notion of management. Systems control thinking frames the organisation as a big machine, which is designed by expert managers, who then staff it with employees, who fulfil the organisations goals through playing out the designed roles. Systems control framing of managerial work, suggests a managers work is to design, control and maintain the organisation as a big social machine. This work is done by managers only who are skilled and knowledgeable experts as they are the organisation designers and drivers. And it involves the application of neutral technical expertise (often affected by informal, implicit understanding, self interest, politics, and negotiation). It also suggests that managers do not further their own interests but to fulfil the organizations goals. But organisation dont have goals, they arent living. It is only humans which can give them goals, top management sets the goals, and these top managers will have self interests, so this framing is not realistic or the way things are in practise. Why systems control thinking is attractive and used The concept of highly trained individuals engineering the big organisational machine that is present in modern societies has proved to b seductive and powerful. This is because it gives those in the profession of educating and training managers an essential purpose, a raison detre. Not only this, but the belief in the possibility of a body of objective knowledge and politically neutral managerial expertise provides further comfort and reassurance by avoiding recognition that managing and controlling in any filed of human activity is bound to meet resistance an is bound to involve managers in conflicts and power relations. The implicit modernist faith that all of this is being done for the sake of general human progress helps avoid tricky questions about right and wrong, and who might win and who might lose with regard to any to any particular organisational innovation or managerial initiative. Anything that is done in the name of reason, it is assumed , is bound to be for the best. No matter how attractive this concept is, it is weak as it is not realistic and thus unhelpful. Because organisations do not have goals, they have tasks that must be done e.g. manufacture cars, and at the same time it is the people in the organisation who have diverse interests and goals what are not that of the organisation. The attraction of the idea of organisational goals , is that it gives the organisation a politically neutral existence and an politically neutral managerial activities. It is only human beings who can have goals, in the organisations goals emerge out of the thoughts and wants of the individuals in it. if we personify the organisation if can lead to a danger of over simplifying really complex matters in the organisation. And we would be leaving out the analysis of all the human actions, choices, interpretations, negotiations, and choices that must be taken into account if we seriously want to understand what is going on. For example if a manager adopts a systems control frame in destining and allocating tasks in work, they may not consider people work orientation, ie why they come to work, the task allocation they design and dictate may them be inappropriate to motivate individuals, and this may lead to poor productivity, and wasted human resources that would not be contributing to taking the organisation into the future. Individuals in the organisation will all have diverse goals and interests and for a manager to start out by assuming that they are presuming the same organisational goals in nave, and the job of a manager in reality is to align these interest, through negotiation, manipulation etc. Because of the above limitations of systems control framing we need an understanding of managerial work that which is derived from a more sophisticated and realistic process relational was of understanding the organisation. Process relational framing of the organisation suggests that the organisation is an association of people or a set of relationships always in flux. Organising thus involves continuous social, political, cultural, technological, economic and moral processes to achieve certain tasks. These relationships of cooperation do not automatically come about they need to be shaped and managed, they have to be worked for and won by the manager. A manager cant directly control people to do what they want, they have to indirectly manipulate and negotiate with them to achieve successful task completion. Shaping and reshaping, negotiation and renegotiating, mediating, persuading, exchanging, and trading will have to continually occur if the organisation is going to complete the tasks undertaken in its name an to continue into the future. This was of understanding organisational life, togther with the research evidience of how manager behavive and actually do in pratice, suggests that magaerial work is not a matter of excerising specialised scientific knowledge to drive the big social machine challed the organisation as systems control pushes us to think. A more realistic under standing of managerial work is: Managerial work is not a matter of applying a science or a bundle of knowledge It is a social, moral political , cultural and economic art, requiring skills in negotiating, persuation, politicking. Trading, ie it is craft requiring It needs the ability to sensiviely interpret the thoughts and wants of other as they are human not physical resources The ability to shape meanings value and human commitments. The above is what in process relational terms is managerial work, rather than management, this is done so that it is easier to under stand the function and the broad activity of managerial work or managing and distinguish between them. Management- is the over all shaping of relationships , understandings and processes within a work organisation to bring about the completion of the tasks undertaken in the organisations name in such a way that the organisation continues into the future. However this dimension of the overall phenomenon has to be seen alongside two other dimensions. Management is the function that must be fulfilled in every organisation, maybe by own person, or by many members in the organisation. The first of these is the activity of the managerial work. Is the action or things that are done to give direction to the range of activities that go on in the organisation. The other dimension is the set of working roles that make up the set of people, who are the managers in the organisation. This is the formal role. In practise we confuse these 2 dimensions because we use one term, which is management for all three. It is important to keep this 3 way distinction in mind whenever we sre thinking analytically about management. The relevance to managerial practice of this three-dimensional view of the management can be illustrated by looking at the participant observation research in which the distinction was first developed by Watson 2001. In a discussion with Ted Meadows, a manager in the company being stuied, he pointed out that, the company wants to distinguish between problems caused by having the wrong managers, and problems caused by having the right managers, who are non the less performing they wrong activities. Distinguishing between these problems was essential, as the manager was contemplating getting rid on he managers as the over management of the company was weak, but the managers he had were very skilled and good but the managerial work they were doing was not right. Had he sacked these managers he would have lost talented managers, and the management of the company would have further declined. The researcher found that the managers in the company were very capable and skilled, contrary to Meadows view that they werent good, but the tasks they were given by top management and the priorities imposed on them were such that their abilities were not being used in a good way. Thus we can see that the distinguishing of the terms is essential as it leads to very different practical consequences, i.e. task redesign or firing the managers. The simplistic inference that bad management is a result of having bad managers can be a very dangerous one, in practical terms, given the very real possibility that bad management can arise from the misuse of managerial talents, as readily as from the appointment of incompetent individuals to fill managerial roles. Thus we can see a great deal of difference from blind adoption of theory, and material work in practice. (Distinguishing also important was just because you cant see or define clear cut managerial activity, or panning, controlling etc does not mean that the function is not being fulfilled, it is but in an indirect way). There are two other implications of the three dimensional model of management: Management is a strategic matter, and the logic of both the job of the manager and the work of managing is on one on contributing to the shaping and the directing of the organisation as a whole. Some managers are more directly involved in strategic matters than other. And some more clearly take on leadership roles than others. While there cannot be organisations without management, it does not follow that the organisation needs formal managers to have management. Management is conceptualised very deliberately as being concerned with the continuation of the organisation into the future. We could call this a strategy centred view of organisational management. It would be less helpful to recognise managers as people who are simply in charge of a particular activity and who fulfil the function without any refrence to how the activity relates to the over all shaping, directing and performance of the organisation. A manager is most usefully seen to be a manager by vitue of how they relate the particular tasks they do to the over all pattern of tasks and priorties of the organisation as a whole. The second point is that, organisations must have management but not neceaarly managers. It is often sensible and practical to create posts within the organisations overall division of labour who involve them self more in the shaping and directing og work activities, than in the direct work of production, or manufacturing or goods or services. But this is only a matter of organisational design choice and not something that is essential. And this goes against the systems-control thinking which see it vital to have an engineer and driver of the organisation, special to all other employees. This is related to contingency thinking, that suggests that the way an organisation is managed and organisational choices is dependent on factors such as technology, size etc, so at times it may be appropriate to have a manager position, while at other times for example a very small firm such as a two man surveying company, the people who do the work could also manage the organisation which out the name tag of a manager. However once an organisation reaches a certain size it is often more efficient to have managerial only roles. We can thus clearly see that a manager is not needed to manage the organisation in all situations. There are many way of managing an organisation, for example worker cooperatives and self managed enterprises have come into and gone out of fashion at several times in history, and it is possible that some of their principles with be considered once again as new options are sought for organising work in a technologically and globally changing world, this again this high lights that organisational choices are made in the light of contingencies. But at present, what actually do managers do, and how do we make sense of what we observe when social scientists go out to study every day managerial behaviour. Research on what managers actually do in the real world rather than text books, was carried out from the 1950 to the 1960 by for example, Tom Burns, Tony Watson, and Melville Dalton. (talk about direct and indirect control, official and unofficial structure, this un official behaviour and activities supports the official culture and goals. Barnard 1938 argued that an executives job was not to attend directly to the official structure and culture of an organisation but to shape what he saw was the more informal aspects of the organisation, that in aggregate contribute to the strategy that will take the organisation into the future) The picture that emerges from what mangers actually do is one of which: Managers are endlessly on the move from one task to another. Their day is highly fragmented as they rapidly switch from one issue to another and from one social interaction to another (might be to understand each employees work orientation, manage all constituencies make a decision, negotiated order, ) (garbage can) They spend a great deal of time talking with people. This occurs on the telephone, in formal meetings, and in conversations what occur inside and outside the workplace, in offices, in corridors, (various consistencies) When walking to see people on the job. A large proportion of these conversations are with people who the manager has no authority (constituencies that he has no direct control over, but he has to stratigically get them on his side so the organisation can progress, politicking).( or indulgency theory allowing so that when organisation needs something in the future they do it for him) Managerial looks reactive, and rarely appears to follow a sequence of reflective planning followed by actions to implement specific decision (this may be because of the garbage can model , there are many choices, problems, solutions, people, interests, that all have to be managed as things happen to make a decision thus even if a planned decision was made it may have to be changed in the light of all these things) Managers rely a great deal on gossip hearsay and guess work to keep informed. Formal reports and management information systems play only a small part in informing managerial thinking, and what is taken from these tends to be contextulaised by more informal sources of knowledge and insight. They thus spend little time analysing formal information in the office or systematically plan how they are going to spend time (consider the motivation of employees, a manager can plan this in isolation, they have to interact with employee and decide what to do in the light of the workers work orientation and changes in their life etc, they cant just plan and implement) Manager are rarely seen getting their was or getting tasks done by giving direct command to subordinates ( it is a trade, give and take, and negotiation and manipulation if the implicit contract, direct command does not lead to productive work, because they are humans not physical resources) These studies taken as a whole suggest that managers rarely behave in the ways we might expect, as planners, designers and implementers of systems, of instruction giving managers. Instead they are handling their dependence on other people through endless talking, listening, and persuading. They do this primarily by negotiating, trading, exchanging with all the parties whom they rely on to achieve the tasks for which they have responsibility ( as the have to manage many consistencies in and out of the organisation, it explains a lot of the frenzy and fragmentation, and the impact contract of many people they have to deal with) There is however logic behind this apparently frenzied managerial whirl of activity. There is a risk of misunderstanding what is going on and people from the outside looking in may feel that management of the organisation as an over all function is not occurring. But if we use the three dimensional model of management we can see that although the tasks being done appear to be pointless, this type of managerial work is in fact working towards a clear strategy that is in the form of indirect control, and negotiaction that leads to over all management of the organisation to continue into the future. Thus real work of managers is not anything like Fayols classic description of managerial work of, planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Although the outcome of their activities still leads to the desired results that would come from using Fayols more direct and unrealistic forms on managing. Fayols list has been taught to many students, and this has not helped many in understanding the real way managers manage, and thus many students are socked when they first graduate and entre the world of work, they often feel lost, and many comment that they are taught too much theory and not enough about practical situation. Fayols list has functioned as a slogan for the systems control thinking perspective about managerial thinging in the organisation. And process relational thinking helps us make sense of managerial behaviour of negotiating and manipulating process and relationships that shapes the organisation. Just because we cant see Fayols command element in real life does not mean it doesnt not occur. Although there might not be direct command, the function can still be achieved by other ways that are not so direct, such as manipulation or trading. Thus commanding may not be seen but it is done. A study that helps us understand why managers act the way they do is KOTTER 1982 study, where he studied 15 general managers that were seen as very successful by a variety of people. Kotter 1983 observed that these managers were not very systematic, they were more informal, less reflective, more reactive, less well organised than we might expect the typical manager to be. Kotter makes sense of this at first sight, puzzling situation by recognising the inevitability of the immense ambiguity and uncertainty that surrounds the managers job. Decision therefore cannot emerge from cool calculated analysis of clear and objective data. Reality is not like that thus managers cannot act like that, Kotter states that the decision making environment is characterised by uncertainty, great diversity, and an enormous quantity of potentially relevant information (GARBAE CAN). Thus kotter is giving recognition to one of the most ideas in social science, that of bounded rationality. The concept of bounded rationality suggests that, the human ability to calculate the most appropriate means of achieving a specific end is limited or bounded by two ways, firstly that only a small proportion of all the knowledge and information which is potentially relevant to any rational analysis can ever in reality be obtained. And secondly, the human mind would only cope with a fraction of all the relevant information had it been obtainable. But to give emphasis to these limitations to instrumental rationality in actual human behaviour is not to turn ones back on the principle of instrumental rationality. Instead it is to come to terms that instrumental rationality can only take us so far, in helping us achieve or purposes. This means that in doing managerial work or in trying to understand the managerial practices to be observed in real life organisations, we have to come to terms with ambiguity in organisational situations, and with what follows from it : uncertainty about the future. To be fully rational be have to come to terms with the inescapability of ambiguity and uncertainty. Ambiguity exists when the meaning of a situation or and event is unclear or confused and is therefore open to a variety of interpretations. Uncertainty exists when the understanding of a future event or situation is unclear or confused and is therefore open to a wide variety of interpretations. In an organisational setting there is ambiguity and uncertainty as manager are concerned with taking the organisation into the future, but it is open to a variety of interpretation of if this will happen and how, We thus have to understand that we can never really know precisely what we are doing in managerial situations any more than we can ever really know exactly where we are going. But this doesnt not mean that we give up trying to organise and manage a complex work tasks. It means that manager have to work at organising these affairs while Recognizing that the world is a complicated and unpredictable place Accepting that people that managers deal with are complicated and un predictable beings Coming to terms with the fact that manager them self are complicated and unpredictable beings What does these observations mean in practise? Returning back to kotters research, he went on to point out that managerial decisions could not in the real world be implements by straight forward issuing of subordinate. Instead they gave to be implement through a large, diverse, group of subordinates, peers, bosses and outsiders, people who them effectively the manager have little control over. The methods that these managers used to get things done were therefore much more about influencing people than commanding people, and this explains the indirect way the manage people. ( they dont have power over people work orientation they can only manipulate the implicit contract.) They used a great deal of face to face contact and were constantly encouraging, manipulating and persuading people. They were demanding of others and used a wide range of ways to reward people for producing what was required (implicit contract exchange to control people not direct control) The networks established by managers were such that their members would influence each to work towards fulfilling the agenda around which the networks have been developed In fact the series of agendas that managers identified for themselves mediated between the longer term strategic priorities of the business as a while and the day to day activities orchestrated by the general manager. We could perhaps see these agendas as mental maps that manager used to make sense of what is happening and help them understand how unfolding events might be linked to the overall directing of the organisation( eg strategic exchange with employees in the contract to get them motivated to go tasks that take the organisation into the future) There are various ways of managing people, various tasks and activities and various projects, that could be adopted by the manager to contribute to the meeting of the agenda. Thus can explain managements behaviour of a manager. However these agendas (look up strategy), are not conceived away from the everyday activities. The constant monitoring of information coming from a wide range of sources, eg gossip, rumour, etc contributes to the development if the agenda, and the managers were skilled and assertive at questioning people and obtaining with information ( from multiple constituencies). Thus we recognise the method behind the seemingly mad behaviour of managers in reality, ie the efficiency behind seemingly inefficient behaviour, we can see that all the fragmented behaviour adds up to a degree of organisational system-ness. The process relational framing draws our attention to the range of social, political, cultural and economic processes that managerial and organisational work involves. And it rejects the systems control assumption that the organisation is a system. Yet it does not reject the notion of an emerging from the processes that go on, just rejects looking at the organisation as a system from the start. Process relational thinking sees system like qualities as emergent, fragile and temporary, it has to we won and re-won by skilful managerial action. All of the unofficial things they do support the official aspects and strategy of the organisation ie the agendas, to take the organisation into the future. This managerial work involves indirect control and all of this seemingly fragmented behaviour is for a reason such as, this indirect control and way or managing the organisation shapes the structural side of the organisation, such as a flat hierarchy and in turn the culture is shaped, which is based on equality, trust etc. It is all part of a bigger picture, the way a manager runs the organisation affects everything else. Indulgency theory may also explain why sometimes we see manager acting irrationally, but in reality they do it as they see it was a tool for meeting the agenda, such as they may turn a blind eye to a person taking a sick day to go see their child in a school play, in turn they will get the employees cooperation if they for example need them to do some last minute over time. Also the manager runs round from one person to another and from dealing with one issue to another because the organisation is associated with many strategic constituencies. And the exchange with all these parties and their contribution to the organisation is essential to the long term survival of the organisation. Some times one group of the consistencies may be more important than another, and at another time some one else is more important than the other. Thus the manager has to manage these different constituencies ranging from investors, to employees, to politicians. This is to work towards the long term strategy they have to make the company continue into the future. Eg politicians, investors, owners, media etc. endlessly monitoring the activities and expectations of all the various parties and constituencies with which they need to deal and pulling people towards compliance with in the agenda they had developed for shaping the enterprise Managers have to thus be skilled at managing these diverse sets of people to ensure long term continuation. Manager are more likely to be skilled than other manager in their jobs if they are skilful at managing relationships and commitments in a way which comes to terms with all the ambiguities and uncertainties with which they are inevitably confronted. This suggests that we should be able to identify some capabilities that managers and leaders within organisations are likely to require if they are going to contribute to the effectiveness of the organisation. A variety of attempts have been made to identify successful managers differ from less successful ones. The danger from these research is that these skills identified are then seen as traits a person should have and if they do they are given a managerial role. But in reality just because a person has these traits does not mean they will be a competent manager. Also a manager may have these skills, but things that are out of their control such as how the job has been set up and the tasks they have been allocated may not be appropriate thus, they have the skill but other things prevent them from being a competent manager. Thus we can infer that come traits and skills do make managers potentially better managers than others, but this potential is affected by many other factors such as the job design. Thus we need to look at what managerial potential a person has, and how effective they might be in practice. Managerial effectives is the successful application of the skills, knowledge and aptitudes to the fulfilment of tasks in a managers area of responsibility so that as great contribution as possible is made to the performance of the organisation and its long term survival. Tony Watson suggests some broad characteristics of more able and less able managers and leaders. There are three categories of characteristics personal orientation cognitive style interpersonal style in each of the three sections there are traits that distinguish between able and less able managers. Eg 1 personal orientation: achievement and results orientation, an able manager would set high but realistic standards of achievement for self, and for others, and seek continual improvement, in processes and results, and monitor progress against targets. A less able manager would muddle through without clear objectives, and is happy with adequate performance and judge success as avoidance of trouble. Cognitive style: vision and strategic thinking: Good manager: can relate to current activities to a clear coherent image of a future state of affairs for the whole organisation and their part of it, they understand the links between every day activities and the long term effectiveness. They manage their segment of the organisation as a contribution to the whole organisation. The appreciate the global context in which all organisations increasingly work and are sensitive to differing cultural norms within and across societies. Bad manager: have a short term perspective and an inward looking approach to managing their responsibilities- their department or functional objectives are seen as the ends themselves rather than as the means to more effective performance of the business as whole. Minimal attention is paid to customers or clients and there is little awareness of changing global circumstances or cultural variations that exist within a and across societies. Interpersonal style: sensitivity and listing (important for implicit contact) Good: are sensitive to preferences and emotions of both themselves and those they work with ( inside and out side the organisation and this is needed for strategic constituencies and to exchange with them, resources and information ) They treat others and their ideas with respect ( they dont plan and enforce own ideas only as they see them self as the specialist with the specialist knowledge) Listen carefully to the ideas and opinions of others, work actively to elicit positive contributions from them ( needed for successful implicit contract manipulation. ( also to understand misbehaviour and what it means to successfully manage it rather than label it as act of ignorance they get to route of problem so that resistance does not persist. Bad manager: have little regards fro the people they work with, they are insensitive to the feelings of others, concentrate on their own ideas and feelings and objectives and dont consider the interests of others. The first thing we notice about the table put together by Tony Watson 2006 is that it is consistent with the process relational conception of the human individual as emergent. It departs from the systems control way of understanding the human individual as a fixed entity or miniature system with certain given characteristics, personality traits and attitudes like pervious research has suggested. Less successful managers can change and adopt these more preferred way of managing to help them in their work. The competent manager or effective leader is not a particular type of person but someone who acts or thinks in a particular way. Hence the model uses the term orientation and style to give an emphasis to this dynamic or process-ual view of the human individual. The model is not compatible with the view of management as a specialist occupation activity equivalent to e.g. engineering. The criteria of managerial capability fits closely with the process relational way of forming managerial work. This frame of reference strongly supported by research into what managers actually do suggests that managerial work is not most helpfully understood as involving the application of a body of specialist knowledge to running an organisational machine. It is much more understood as a matter of deploying social , political and cultural skills in a particular way. The vital competencies are therefore basic human social ones. these skills will be strongly sought by employers, and even though no one is super human and has all the skills the most successful managers will be those who master most of the skills. This pulling and shaping occurred through the application of a range of social, interpersonal, political, learning and analytical skills, such as those described in the managerial competencies criteria, it did not occur through overt and direct attempts to control behaviours. But why/ This is because they are highly dependent on a large number of people to achieve their porous, and in spite of their significant degree of authority and formal power, they have little direct control over the majority of people they are dependent on, eg investors, media, local MPs etc. thus they can only exchange and negotiate and indirectly control them They also have to reply on highly ambiguous information gathered from a diverse range of sources to inform all of their persuading and influencing activities. A high level of cognitive skill is need to make sense of all the information with which the manager is bombarded, as is a capacity to learn continuously from what they see hear and experience. This agrees with the process relation view of an emergent manager. And that leaning does not just occur at university , and you cant just learn theory about how to be a good manager because the dynamics of real life is very different. We can thus see why in the real world makers often make a decision that is like guess work, they are leaning from experiences. They also have to have emotional intelligence To operate successfully in a social context which is the organisation. Manger status can also hold social status, and when carrying out the task of being a manager one must not get carries away with the status it hold as this can be inefficient.